The landlocked Central Asian country on Sunday voted in an election that critics said featured no formal opposition and was expected to cement the power of Kyrgyzstan's strongman president Sadyr Japarov.

Monitors from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) said in a statement the ballot was run "efficiently", but in a "restrictive campaign environment" that stifled candidate and voter engagement.

The election's legislative framework fell short "of a number of international standards," Claude Haagen, leader of the observer mission, was quoted as saying in the statement.

The de facto ban on political parties to compete -- only one was allowed to run -- and the election of allegedly independent members of parliament make the results difficult to interpret.

But at least 40 of the 90 new members of parliament were already elected in the previous election and support Japarov, according to an AFP tally based on preliminary results.

The election campaign "generated limited voter engagement, linked to fears of retribution for political activity," OSCE said.

Surrounded by highly authoritarian regimes, Kyrgyzstan has gone through three revolutions -- in 2005, 2010 and 2020 -- since the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Japarov is seeking to end that cycle by boosting his control over politics and society.

Several NGOs have denounced a deterioration in freedom of expression and the press since Japarov came to power.

Days ahead of Sunday's election, 10 of his opponents were arrested, adding to a long list of politicians and journalists the state has accused of plotting coups.